Prof. I. Dinakar

Commentary

The journey of my life and its culmination in correlative neuro-philosophy

I. Dinakar

Neurology India, 2018 · PMID 30232980 · NI Feature: Timeless Reverberations

I attended Andhra Medical College, Vishakapatnam and graduated in 1959 as the most distinguished of the batch (Blue ribbon, Anderson gold medal). As an internee in December 1960 and January 1961, I was trained in Neurosurgery under the mentorship of Dr. Balaparameshwar Rao, Head of Neurosurgery, Andhra Medical College, who had just then returned from the UK after a two year fellowship. Inspired by Dr. Balaparameshwar Rao, I chose Neurosurgery as my profession. During my subsequent training as an MCh trainee at the Christian Medical College Hospital, Prof. Jacob Chandy, infused the concept of "Operating Neurologist", emphasizing the importance of Clinical Neurology. My passion towards Clinical Neurology was reinforced during daily patient rounds and attending clinics under the supervision of Dr. J. C. Jacob and Dr. G. M. Taori. Neurosurgery training was imparted by Dr. K. V. Mathai and Dr. Jacob Abraham.

Upon returning to Andhra Medical College, I started to use conray in myelography and ventriculography, which was the first time ever in India. The award of Smith and Nephew fellowship enabled me to travel to Edinburgh for a year to train in stereotactic surgery under the guidance of Prof. Gillingham. During fellowship at Edinburgh, I worked on continuous monitoring of muscle tone during surgical exploration of ventral-lateral nucleus (VLN) of the thalamus as well as the globus pallidus. In association with Dr. E. G. Walsh, I studied muscle tone in Parkinsonism; our work was later presented and appreciated at the Physiological Society of London. Subsequently, I worked on the performance of cisternal myelography using conray with Dr. E. Hitchcock. As an appreciation to my contribution during my work with Dr. Hitchcock, I was appointed as Honorary Fellow of Surgical Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Edinburgh, in 1972.

After successful training in the UK, upon return to India, the Government of Andhra Pradesh, appointed me as the Professor of Neurosurgery, Kurnool Medical College. With scarce-to-no facilities, and without qualified assistance for nearly a decade, I had to perform services in Neurosurgery, Neurology and Radiology at the Kurnool Medical College, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh. Things, however, changed for the good in 1986, when I was appointed as the First Professor and Head of Neurosurgery at the Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences (NIMS), Hyderabad. It is here at NIMS that I spent the next decade of professional life, establishing post-graduate training programs, the spinal cord trauma center, and the center for comprehensive management for cerebral palsy that included surgical procedures like selective posterior rhizotomy. Despite limited sources and financial constraints, young, qualified and trained neurosurgeons joined me at NIMS to improve Neurosurgery. They helped me to scale greater heights to enable me to serve as the Director of NIMS until retirement in 1996. Post-retirement, the acumen to understand the unknown still existed in me. This inspired me to explore Neurobiology and Neuro-philosophy; thus leading me to develop the concept of "Correlative" Neuro-philosophy — bridging the gaps and interpreting ancient philosophical concepts from scriptures, and correlating them with the recent advances in Neurosciences.

I seized an opportunity to write about Correlative Neuro-philosophy as an editorial, an article that has been widely read. In this article, I emphasized the fact that "The brain creates models of the physical world by combining signals from the senses and prior expectations, based on Bayes’ Theorem of probability. It is precisely these models which we are aware of (that are consciously perceived). Through associative learning and verifying the models constructed thereof, the brain constructs world-maps of value, for example, maps that locate objects of high value. Maps indicating actions of high value (behaviour) are likely to be successful. These maps provide the basis for top-down impulses, which react with new impulses processed upwards in the next sensory experience to form new models, and this phenomenon continues."

Making the editorial more apt, I passed a thought to every reader that "Our only access to the world is indirect through our perceptual filtering organs and embodiment through neuronal distillation. We mistake our conceived external reality to be the real one due to failure to distinguish between ‘knowing’ and ‘knowing about’ the neurological fact that we have access only through the representations as well as information filtered through the fine filigree of the nervous system. We can have only perspectives on reality that we only ‘know about’. The objective truth — ‘knowing’ — remains elusive because it is illusive!"

Acknowledgement

The Editor of Neurology India is grateful to Dr. Manas Panigrahi and Dr. Sudhindra Vooturi, Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences, for their help with this article.

Department of Neurosurgery, Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad, Telangana; Kurnool Medical College, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Dinakar I. The journey of my life and its culmination in correlative neuro-philosophy. Neurol India 2018;66:1242-3.

doi:10.4103/0028-3886.241375

Open access under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License.

Editorial

Illusion and reality: correlative neurophilosophy

I. Dinakar

Journal of Clinical and Scientific Research, 2015 · Received 26 March 2015 · Accepted 8 June 2015

The remarkable feature of our knowledge of the physical world in all its beauty and grandeur is that it seems so easy! This very experience that our perception of the world is so easy and immediate is an illusion. We were not certain of this illusion until we made the machines that could ‘do’ perception and imaging technologies which gave us information about what goes on in which location(s) within the brain.

It has been believed for ages both by the philosophers and the academicians that our perception of the world is an illusion, a mithya in the eastern tradition, and that we have an indirect view through the representations of the reality in our brains. This view was based on intuitive thinking, logical deduction and keen observation of life. However, technological advances in recent decades, especially those which enable us to delineate the functioning of the brain such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) have begun to unravel the truth behind the age old belief. And we have today a scientific basis of this archetypal storyline, the illusory nature of perception, that "our brains construct the world and it exists inside them".

Perceptions stream not just through the senses only, but are processed through body mandala (peripersonal space–kinesphere) to render your perceptions in terms of affordances. A region in the premotor cortex is involved in transforming visual, auditory etc., and semantic information (knowledge of meaning and utility) about the perceived objects directly into motor commands.

The initial acquisition of information by all sensory modalities begins with the process of Transduction by which forms of physical energy alter the electrical state of the sensory neurons. Photo transduction occurs in the retina, the outputs thereof are carried by the ganglion cells to distinct termination sites in the brain for elucidating different facets of vision through more than 30 ensembles of neurons. Von Bekesy’s studies of the structural features of the cochlea and their role in neuronal frequency coding of sound is historical.

Hierarchial processing is a feature of the sensory system. Multiple hierarachially organized processings through incoming sensory information is represented in increasingly complex and abstract forms.

Interaction between external stimuli and neuronal activation and the meaning there of is granted by the associative interactions between neurons carrying different types of information as the sensory impulses travel up interacting with centres at various levels (bottom up process). The already experienced information is integrated with the upcoming impulses (top down process). The models are formed in the brain. The implications of association for the establishment of the neural basis of perception are profound.

Thus the brain creates models of the physical world by combining signals from the senses and prior expectation, based on Bayes’ Theorem of probability. It is precisely these models which we are aware of (consciously perceived). Through associative learning and verifying the models constructed thereof the brain constructs maps of the world — maps of value, e.g. maps that locate objects of high value and viceversa. Maps indicating actions of high value (behaviour) are likely to be successful. These maps provide the basis for top down impulses which react with new impulses processed upwards in the next sensory experience to form new models and this phenomenon continues.

The world is therefore inside the brain. Colours are in the brain. We see a red coloured object, say a rose or an apple. There is no redness in the object as such. The ‘red’ object absorbs all the rays in the light spectrum except those of the red, a narrow band of specific wave length of light which falls on the retina. The cones responsible for the colour vision are sensitized and the nerve impulse is generated and transmitted via the optic pathways to the primary visual area, V1 in the occipital cortex and thence to visual areas concerned with colour perception and we see the ‘red colour’!

The sound of music: music, as well as all auditory experiences take place in the brain in response to the pattern of nerve impulses reaching the brain via the ears. The vibrations set in motion in the air from the source have no identity of their own as speech or music. It is only when they strike the ear drums and set in motion a series of changes in the middle and the inner ear (cochlea) where they are translated into electric impulses and transmitted along the various auditory centers that air waves become meaningful. There is no music ‘out there’!

How do we see similarly? Over millennia of evolution human brains got wired similarly so that perception in all brains respond in like manner so that the world out there is best described to an astonishingly high degree of accuracy. Immanuel Kant, the German idealist philosopher called the real world ‘thing in itself’ (Ding an Sich) and believed that it is not directly knowable.

Our only access to the world is indirect through our perceptual filtering organs and embodiment through neuronal distillation. We mistake our conceived external reality to be the real one due to failure to distinguish between knowing and knowing about the neurological fact that we have access only to the representations, information filtered through the fine filigree of the nervous system. We can have only perspectives on reality ie. We only ‘know about’. The objective truth — ‘knowing’ — remains elusive because it is illusive!

Science in the most advanced stage now is closer to Vedanta than ever before.
Alfred North Whitehead

References

Blackmore S. Consciousness: an introduction. First edition. New York: Oxford University press; 2003.
Frith C. Making up the mind: how the brain creates our mental world. First edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing; 2007.
Gray J. Consciousness: creeping up on the hard problem. First edition. New York: Oxford University press; 2004.
Gregory RL. Eye and the brain: the psychology of seeing. Fifth edition. New Jersey: Princeton University Press; 1997.
Koch C. The quest for consciousness: a neurobiological approach. First edition. Colarado: Rogers Company Publishers; 2004.
Morgan M. The space between our ears. First edition. London: The Orion Publishing Group Ltd; 2003.
Van Essen DC, Anderson CH, Felleman DJ. Information processing in the primate visual system: an integrated system perspective. Science 1992;255:419-23.
Velmans M. Understanding consciousness. First edition. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis Inc; 2000.

Dinakar I. Illusion and reality correlative neurophilosophy. J Clin Sci Res 2015;4:193-4.

doi:10.15380/2277-5706.JCSR.15.035

Open access under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License.

Special Feature: Editorial Commentary

Mind and matter — The quantum mind!

I. Dinakar

Journal of Clinical and Scientific Research, 2025 · Apr–Jun 2025 · Volume 14 · Issue 2

The mind–matter relationship remained in the domain of philosophers for aeons. However, the inquisitiveness of the scientific minds has always been trying to understand the science behind its various functions. The scientific temper ushered in by the Renaissance about the 15th century saw the scientists exploring this problem from a science point of view. Technological advances during the later part of the 20th century enabled neuroscientists to explore and localise functions of the brain. However, the most difficult has been understanding the origin of a conscious experience scientifically or materialistically. Despite the delineation of many functions of the brain, the origin of conscious experience, the qualia, in the material brain remains elusive, so much so it came to be called the holy grail of neuroscience.

Heisenberg wrote: ‘Physics entered the domain of philosophy with the emergence of consciousness in quantum observation, which incidentally opened the door for reconciliation of science and philosophy’,[1] an event which enabled the predictions of Snow of the merging of arts and sciences.[2,3]

Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics relating to very small particles — subatomic particles — electrons, photons, and everything in the submolecular realm, being the smallest units in matter. Quantum theory is the most fundamental theory of matter available at present. Some basic concepts of quantum physics need to be understood. These include "superposition", where in subatomic particles exist either as waves or particles in a dual nature, never simultaneously. They exist as waves in more than one place at a time and once an observer observes or interferes with (such as measuring) their superposition state collapses to particle state. Quantum entanglement is the phenomenon that occurs when a group of particles which are generated, interact with or share special proximity such that they remain connected even when separated by vast distances. Consciousness is a manifestation of quantum process. Q mind or Q consciousness comprises a group of hypotheses proposing that quantum mechanical phenomena such as entanglement and superposition may play an important part in the functions of the brain and could thus explain the origin of consciousness. Several theories of quantum consciousness have been proposed. Wigner proposed the idea that quantum mechanics has something to do with the workings of the mind and proposed that the wave function collapse in the interaction with conscious observation creates consciousness.[4] Vitiello and Freeman[5] proposed quantum field theory (QFT) of brain states. This theory deals with systems and provides formal elements from which a standard description of brain activity can be inferred. According to QFT, particles are only excited states or simply manifestations of a field. Every particle has its own field that covers all of the universe, which means that, according to QFT, all of the electrons of the universe belong to the same field and could be regarded as one.

Bohm formulated the QFT as a deeper theory of quantum theory plus relativity.[6] He viewed mind and matter as projections into our explicate order underlying the implicate order. Quantum brain dynamics (QBD) hypothesis explains the function of the brain within the framework of QFT.[7] It is not yet known exactly how quantum superpositions and their collapse result in the genesis of the raw feels of consciousness, the qualia. Feynman stated ‘if you think you understand quantum mechanics then you do not!’[8] Pribram proposed the holonomic brain theory (quantum holography). He invoked quantum mechanics to explain the higher-order processing by the mind. Pribram provided evidence on how much of the processes in the brain take place in a distributed fashion.[9,10] The composite model of Pribram-Bohm of holoflux hypothesis addresses observed phenomenon of non-locality both spacially and temporally. Bose and Einstein, who first predicted Bose Einstein condensate proposed that water at dendritic membrane surfaces might operate by structuring condensation,[11] supporting QBD.

Penrose and Hamoreff proposed the orchestrated-objective reduction (ORCH-OR) in 1989 through 2013. According to them, the microtubules in the neurons (neurotubules), the tubulin protein polymer at the site of quantum collapse, leads to conscious experience. The quantum superposed states which develop in the tubulins remain coherent and recruit more superposed tubulins until a mass-time-energy threshold is reached. At this point, self-collapse or objective reduction occurs, which is equated to a discrete conscious event. Cascades of ORCH-OR events give rise to the stream of consciousness.[12,13] Penrose suggested that objective reduction represents neither randomness nor algorithmic processing but instead a non-computable influence in spacetime geometry from which mathematical understanding and, by later extension, consciousness derives.[14]

Quantum vibrations in the microtubules proposed by Bandyopadhyay[15] have been shown to be source of conscious experience by corroborating the Penrose-Hemeroff’s ORCH-OR hypothesis.[13,16] In April 2022, the results of two related experiments at the University of Alberta and Princeton University, announced at The Science of Consciousness conference, provided further evidence to support quantum processes operating within microtubules. However, in another experiment, Gregory D. Scholes and Aarat Kalra of Princeton University used lasers to excite molecules within tubulins, causing a prolonged excitation to diffuse through microtubules further than expected, which did not occur when repeated under anaesthesia.[17,18] Beck and Eccles considered quantum mechanics at the synaptic level. If Orchestrated objective reduction (ORCH-OR) theory is applicable, a similar phenomenon in the microtubules at the presynaptic level, the axon terminal could be invoked for the genesis of consciousness.[19] A recent study by scientists at Trinity College, Dublin, in October 2022,[20] suggests that quantum processes underlie the cognitive and conscious brain functions.

The brain–mind operational architectonics is the boundary between and integration point of quantum physics and eastern metaphysics and that it may inspire building a richer and more inclusive paradigm of the brain–mind relation, where quantum physics and eastern metaphysics are inherently intertwined. A body of empirical evidence[21-24] supports these possibilities, strengthening the proposal that the mind–brain relationship may be partially quantum. Quantum information theory clarifies the distinction between the unobservable mind and the observable brain and supports a solid physical foundation for consciousness research. With all these theories trying to explain and understand the theoretical/hypothetical framework for consciousness to explain the subjective experience of consciousness, the experts of this field feel it is still a long way to bridge the gap between current neurobiological and physical–mathematical concepts with their associated quantum–mind theories. Though there is still a long way to go for explaining conscious experience scientifically, when ever this happens, it will become one of the benchmarks in science.

Financial support and sponsorship

Nil.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

Use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for manuscript preparation

The authors confirm that there was no use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for assisting in the preparation of the manuscript and no images were manipulated using AI.

References

Heisenberg W. Physics and philosophy. An event which enabled the predictions of C. P. Snow of merging of arts and sciences. New York: Harper and Row; 1958.
Snow CP. The two cultures and the scientific revolution. London: Cambridge University Press; 1959.
Snow CP. The Two Cultures: A second look. London: Cambridge University Press; 1963.
Wigner EP. The problem of measurement. Am J Phys 1961;31. doi: 10.1119/1.1969254.
Vitiello G. My double unveiled. The dissipative quantum model of brain. Amsterdam: John Benjamins; 2001.
Bohm D. Wholeness and the Implicate Order. Hoboken: Routledge; 2002.
Atmanspacher H. Quantum approaches to consciousness. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University 2015.
Available from: physics.stackexchange.com — intuitive meaning of Hilbert space formalism. [Last retrieved on 2025 Apr 20]
Pribram KH. Quantum holography: Is it relevant to brain function? Inf Sci 1999;115:97–102.
Pribram KH. Consciousness reassessed. Mind Matter 2004;2:7–35.
Einstein A. Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen gases. Sitzungsberichte: Königliche Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften; 1924;261–7.
Hameroff S, Penrose R. Consciousness in the universe: a review of the ‘Orch OR’ theory. Phys Life Rev 2014;11:39–78.
Discovery of quantum vibrations in "microtubules" inside brain neurons corroborates controversial 20-year-old theory of consciousness. Physics of Life Reviews news. [Last retrieved on 2025 Apr 20]
Penrose R. The emperor’s new mind: concerning computers, minds, and the laws of physics. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1989.
Bandyopadhyay A. Discovery of quantum vibrations in microtubules in neurons cause consciousness. Science Daily 2014. [Last retrieved on 2025 Apr 20]
Osborne H. Quantum vibrations in brain opens ‘pandora’s box’ of theories of consciousness. International Business Times. [Last retrieved on 2025 Apr 20]
Lewton T. Quantum experiments add weight to a fringe theory of consciousness. New Scientist 2022. [Last retrieved on 2025 Apr 25]
Tangermann V. Experiment suggests that consciousness may be rooted in quantum physics. Camden Media Inc; 2022. [Last retrieved on 2022 Apr 24]
Beck F, Eccles JC. Quantum aspects of brain activity and the role of consciousness. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992;89:11357–61.
Our brains use quantum computation. Trinity College Dublin. [Last retrieved on 2025 Apr 20]
McCrone J. Quantum mind. Lancet Neurol 2003;2:450.

Department of Neurosurgery, Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad, Telangana, India. Address for correspondence: Prof. I. Dinakar, Former Director-cum-Vice-Chancellor, Former Professor, Department of Neurosurgery, Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences, Punjagutta, Hyderabad 500 482, Telangana, India.

Dinakar I. Mind and matter - The quantum mind! J Clin Sci Res 2025;14(2):134-136.

doi:10.4103/jcsr.jcsr_65_25

Open access under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License.

Essay — from Correlative Neurophilosophy and Related Articles

Correlative Neurophilosophy

I. Dinakar

Manuscript · Author’s own manuscript

Philosophy is the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, existence, and reality.

Philosophy is derived from the Latin roots: philos is love and Sophie is wisdom (Love of wisdom/knowledge). This term was allegedly coined by Pythagoras (570-495 BCE).

Philosophy developed in ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE. Thales of Miletus is considered to be the founder of Philosophy as he was the first one to propose that the world can be explained by observation and reason rather than through mythology. He is followed by Socrates, who is considered the father of Western philosophy, as he shifted the focus of philosophy from the natural world to the humankind and to ethics and morality. He was followed by Plato and then Aristotle. They sought to understand the fundamental truths about the world, reality, life and death and above all about the self. Plato called philosophy "that dear delight" (Heisenberg). Science is analytical description while philosophy is synthetic interpretation (Will Durant).

The concept of atom was conceived by Democritus of Abdera and other Pythagorians who were the first to realize the creative force inherent in mathematical formulations which were later considered by modern physics and quantum mechanics. Democritus considered the atom as the smallest unit of matter, laying the foundations of Atomism.

For about 2000 years following Plato the minds of the philosophers were directed towards the human "soul" and its supernatural relationships but not towards the outer world. It was again since the time of renaissance that gradual change in the human mind could be seen which finally resulted in a revival of interest in nature, an objective approach to reality, ushering in the scientific determinism.

The hall mark of changes in scientific approach to nature and to modern physics and natural science is attributed to Rene Descrates who not only described and explained natural phenomena but also the role of interplay between nature and man. Cartesian realism as the basis of natural science, is practical realism as opposed to dogmatic realism.

The development of natural science post renaissance was accompanied by promotion of philosophical ideas which were closely connected with concepts of science (Heisenberg). In contrast to ancient Greek philosophy, Cartesian views were based on fundamental knowledge as opposed to fundamental principles/substance. However Descrates adhered to dualism, namely division between matter and mind or body and Soul, a concept initiated in Plato’s philosophy reached the endpoint in Descrates. His statement "Cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am) courted considerable controversy.

Immanuel Kant was a German idealist philosopher of 18th century and a central thinker of enlightenment. Known for synthesizing rationalism and empiricism, he believed that our minds shape reality and that human being cannot perceive reality — "things as they are". Our perceptual experiences create the phenomenal world which infact is not the "thing in itself" (Ding an sich) and does not represent the true nature of the world namely the Noumenon (the reality). This is similar to advaitic principle "Brahma satyam jaganmidhya" meaning reality exists but our perceptual world is an illusion. Kant entertained the philosophical position known as transcendental idealism, based on which the terms "a priori" (analytic) and "a posteriori" were coined. This is similar to our experience of space-time, cause and effect which are inherent structures of the mind, which organize sensory data of top down integration of information preserved in the brain maps modeled in previous experiences with new sensory bottom-up inputs to form new models.

Neurophilosophy

Recent progress in neuroscience has led to the extension of knowledge of neuroscience for application and interpretation of concepts like consciousness, freewill, the self, and the reality etc. which were earlier dealt with mainly by philosophers. The logical extension of this is the development of new field of neurophilosophy, a term which is often used implicitly or explicitly for the categorization of our investigation of "philosophical" theories in terms of neuroscientific hypotheses.

Schopenhaeur was probably the first person to introduce the concept of the brain in a philosophical context (Durant). The French philosopher Merleau Ponty (1908-1961) in his "phenomenology of perception" introduces brain and its neural organization, and links it to the body (embodied mind), perception and to other originally philosophical concepts.

The contemporary philosopher, Patricia Churchland is credited with the coining of the term neurophilosophy. E O Wilson, university professor emeritus, Harvard University, wrote on the front of her book, BRAIN WISE, thus: "Sound philosophy requires a solid understanding of the nature and origin of mind, which in turn depends on the best neuroscience available. Patricia Churchland with verve and exactitude, has taken a large step toward establishing that link."

"Neuroscience — a new philosophy". Professor V S Ramachandran, "The Marcopolo of neuroscience", in his inspiring book, The Emerging Mind, concludes with these words "By studying these strange cases and asking the right question, neuroscientists can begin to answer some of the lofty questions that have preoccupied people since the dawn of history: what is freewill? What is body image? Why do we blush? What is art? What is self? Who am I? questions that until recently were the province of philosophy". He discusses the evolutionary origins of human abilities like language and art and other forms of communication.

The Churchlands (Patricia and Paul) are paradignamic examples of neurophilosophers. Neurophilosophical work on phenomenal consciousness proceeds largely by bringing neuroscientific theories and data to bear on philosophical questions concerning consciousness. Much of Paul Churchland’s discussion on consciousness concerns the role of "neural networks" — collections of interconnected neurons. He endorses Linas’ view whereby consciousness involves recurrent connections between the thalamus and cortex. Tye (1995) opined that when one has a conscious experience all that one is conscious of is what the experience is an experience of.

Ancient Indian (Vedic) philosophical concepts

The ancient Indian philosophical knowledge is embodied in the vedic literature. The basic vedic texts, the four vedas, symbolise the essence of the Indian philosophic thought, and the centrum of this is advaita (nondualism). The knowledge (rational/scientific) part therein is detailed in the Upanishads (Vedanta) which is the jnana (wisdom) section of the scriptures.

The sages of the vedic texts, the SRUTIS, gave extensive and thought provoking treatment to the fundamental philosophic subjects like reality, consciousness, the self etc. The eternal mind-matter problem engaged their attention significantly. They considered consciousness (mind) as primary, as opposed to the neuroscientific approach, and matter as secondary to the mind. The vedas also considered in their analysis the phenomena such as ultimate reality, soul or atma or self, and consciousness and mind synonymously. The vedas were probably authored over a period of time by different sages between 6000BC to 2400BC (Arora, N; 2021, Rajaram, 1996; Joseph T, 2018; Rao S R; Srinivasan, K, 2019).

Sankaracharya (familiarly known as Adisankara) of the 8th century AD revived the vedantic tradition by reinterpreting the essence of advaita through a number of illuminating literary gems. "These compositions with their austere intellectualism, remorseless logic, which marches on indifferent to the hopes and beliefs of man, their relative freedom from theological obsessions, make them great examples of philosophical scheme (Radhakrishnan S). The docrine advocated by Sankara from a purely philosophical point of view, and apart from all theological consideration, is the most important and significant one which has arisen on the Indian soil. (Thibact in Radhakrishnan S)

The system of vedanta of Sankara … "in consistency, thoroughness and profundity holds the first grade in Indian philosophy" (Ch. Iliot. In Radhakrishnan S). Vedantic sutras or Brahma sutras deal with reality and so are also known as sariraka sutras as they deal with the embodiment of the unconditioned self (Radhakrishnan S).

The deep pulsations of reality/matter, the "imprisoned splendor of the atma (self) and consciousness have been caught up in the sweet music of the Upanishads (Vedanta)".

1

"Poornamadah, poornamidam, poornadpoornamudachete, poornasyapoornamadaya; poornamevavasishyate".

That Brahman is infinite. This universe is infinite. The infinite universe emanates from the infinite Brahman, assimilating the infinitude of the infinite universe and the infinite Brahman alone is left. (Brih. Upanishad.) Bohms holistic concept (holography) simulates the above expression.

2

Tamaiva bhantamanubhati sarvam, tasya bhasaa sarvamidam vibhati.

It shines due to its own natural effulgence. By its light all this (universe) shines. (Mu. Up. 2: 2:10)

3

Pragnanam Brahma

Consciousness is reality. (Ai. Up. 3:1:3)

4

Brahmaivedam viswamidam varishtam

This whole universe is engulfed in consciousness-Brahman. (Mu. Up. 2:2:11)

5

Sarvamtat pragnanetram pragnanepratishtitam. Pragnanetro locah pragnapratishtitam

All sensory phenomena are guided by consciousness for their functions which are based on consciousness. This universe has consciousness for its guide and consciousness as its base. (Ai. Up. 3:1:3)

6

Satyam jnanamanantam Brahman

Everything in this manifested universe is Brahman/consciousness. (Mu. Upanishad 2:2:11)

7

Brahmaivedam viswamithyeve

Brahman alone is the universe/reality. (V.Ch.231)

8

Sarvam khalvidam Brahma

It is a holistic universe where everything is interconnected by a common factor which is universal consciousness, the Brahman. (Ch. Up. 3:14:1)

Physics and philosophy

Physics entered the domain of philosophy with the emergence of consciousness in quantum observation which enabled reconciliation of science and philosophy (Heisenberg, 1958). Quantum mechanics, a branch of physics relating to very small particles-subatomic particles, electrons, photons and everything in the submolecular realm, being the smallest units of matter. Quantum theory is the most fundamental theory of matter available at present, according to which consciousness is a manifestation of quantum process. Quantum mind/consciousness comprises a group of hypothesis positing that quantum mechanical phenomena such as entanglement and superposition and quantum collapse may play an important part in the functioning of the brain and could thus explain the origin of consciousness. Eugene Vigner (1961) conceived the idea that quantum mechanics has a role in the workings of the mind, and proposed that the wave function collapse in the interaction with observation creates consciousness. Perhaps the most authentic theory of quantum physics which explains higher order processing by the mind is that of Penrose and Hemoroff namely orchestrated objective reduction (ORCH-OR). According to these authors the microtubules in the neurons, the neurotubules and their protein tubulin polymer form the site of quantum collapse which leads to conscious experience (quqlia). The quantum superposed state which developes in tubulins remain coherent and recruit the superposed tubulins until a mass-time-energy threshold is reached. At this point, self collapse or objective reduction occurs which is equated to a discreet conscious event. Cascades of ORCH-OR events give rise to the stream of consciousness. This hypothesis was not immediately accepted uniformly. However the work of Bandyopadhyay in 2013, on quantum vibrations in microtubules have been shown to be the source of conscious experience corroborating the ORCH-OR hypothesis. A recent study by scientists at the Trinity college, Dublin has shown that quantum processes underlie the cognitive and conscious brain functions (Kerskens, 2022). Quntum information theory thus clarifies the distinction between the unobservable mind and the observable brain and supports a solid physical foundation of consciousness research.

Correlation and its objective

The pupose of this project is to compare the philosophical views on the mind and consciousness, illusory nature of the phenomenal world and reality, expounded in Indian scriptural texts, and views thereof in neurophilosophy and quantum physics.

Similarity of views of physicists and those of the vedic scholars, examples.

Oppenheimer’s words on electron: "If we ask whether the position of electrons remains the same we must say no. If we ask if the electron’s position changes with time, we must say no. If we ask if the electron is at rest we must say no, If we ask if it is in motion we must say no (Capra, 2010)". Isa Upanishad says: "Tadejati tannaijati, taddure, tadvantike. Tadantarasya sanasya, tadu sarvasyasya, bahyatah". It moves, it moves not. It is far and it is near. It is within all this and outside all this. (Isa:5)
Bhagavad Gita declared "Achalam chalamevacha — unmoving and also moving." "Durastam chantikecha tat: It is far and it is also near." (B G 13: 15)
Atmasyajanto nihito guhayam: The atma is hidden in the hearts of all creatures. (Katha Upanishad 1-2-20). I am an atom in the universe and a universe of atoms (Dyson, F.)
I like to think that I am this whole universe as the initial postulates of quantum thinking (Wolf). This is akin to Sarvam khaluvidam Brahma. (Brih U.)
Electrons seem possessing of information. So mind is already inherent in the electron and the process of human consciousness defers only in degree and not in kind. Dyson, F. (14)
All thro’ the physical world runs that unknown "content" which is surely be the stuff of consciousness (Eddington, 1920).
I regard consciousness as fundamental and matter as derivative of consciousness. Everything that we regard as existing postulates consciousness. (Max Planck).

If physics leads us today to a world view which appears to be mystical, it returns in a way to its beginnings 2500 years ago.

Quantum realism is a philosophical stance that proposes that there is a real physical world, out there, but the phenomenal world which we experience is actually a virtual reality generated by it. This is the opposite of the common place belief that the physical world we perceive is real, and the quantum world is a mathematical abstraction. However, this is the same as the central tenet of Advaita, Brahma satyam jagan mythya, that is, Reality exists but our perceptual experience of the phenominal world is an illusion.

References

Aitereya Upanishad: 3-1-3. Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 14. 2008
Arora N. Indians. Penguin random house, India, 2021
Bandyopadyay, Anirbhan. Discovery of quantum vibrations in the microtubules in brain neurons supports controversial theory of consciousness. Science Daily, 16-1-2014
Bohm, D. Wholeness and the implicate order 1980, Routledge, New York
Bhagavadgita, chapter 13, sloka 15
Brihdaranyaka Upanishad (Santhipath) Sri Ramakrishna math, Madras, 1951
Capra, F. The Tao of physics. Shambala, Boston, 2010; (2) Hidden connections
Chandogya Upanishad: 3-14-1. Geetha press, Gorakhpur
Churchland, P S. 2002, Brainwise. MIT press, Mass. USA
Churchland, P M (2002) catching consciousness in recurrentnet. In A Brook and D Ross (eds) quoted by Mandic P.
Democritus. Quoted by Rovilla C.
Descrates, Rene. in Heisenberg
Durant, Will. The story of philosophy. Washington square press, New York 1953
Dyson, F. 2004 Infinite in all directions. Gifford lecture given at Aberdeen, Scotland. 1985, Perennial Ed. NY
Eddington, D. Nature of the physical world.
Einstein, A. quotes
Hameroff, S and Penrose, R. Information processing in microtubules. in Cajal and consciousness. New York academy of sciences pub. 2001: 74-104
Heisenberg W. Physics and philosophy. Harper and Row pub. New York 1958
Joseph, Tony 2018 Early Indians. Juggernaut books. New Delhi 49
Kant, Immanuel. Quoted by Durant
Katha Upanishad, Chinmaya publications trust, Madras 3, 1963
Kerskens, C. Our brains use quantum computation. J. Physics communication, 19-10-2022
Mandik, P. The neurophilosophy of consciousness. 2007 in Blackwell companion to consciousness edited by Max Velmans and Susan Schneider, 2007 Blackwell publishers Ltd. 418-430
Merleau-Ponty, M 2012, Phenomenology of perception. Routeledge pub. NY.
Mundakopanishad 2-2-10, Advaita ashrama, Kolkata 14, 2008
Ibid. MU, 2-2-11
Penrose R. Consciousness, brain and space time geometry, 2001 in Cajal and consciousness, NY Acad. Sc. 105-210
Penrose R. Shadows of the mind, OUP. USA 2005
Plank, M. 1932, Where is science going? Trealus publishers.
Radhakrishnan S. 1923 Indian Philosophy, Volume 2 Advaitavedanta of Sankara. P 445 OUP
Rajaram N S, New light on vedic India and ancient civilization. Prabuddha bharata, Sep-Nov 1996 Advaita ashrama. Kolkata 14
Rao, S R, Scientific tradition in India (3400-1500BC). Occasional paper: 20, New Delhi 16.
Ramachandran VS, The emerging mind 2003. Pub. Profile books
Rovelli, C. Reality is not what it seems. Penguin random pub. 2010
Sankara, Vivekachudamani 20, Chinmaya Trust, Madras 3, 1974
Schopenhauer (1819) Q. Northoff, 2018. Neuropsychodynamic psychiatry, Berlin-Springer.
Srinivasa K. 2019, Roots. TTD Tirupathi publications.
Stanford encyclopedia of Philosophy. Quantum approach to consciousness. 30.11.2004
Thales Q by Heisenberg.
Tye (1995) quoted by Mandik P.
Wigner, E.P. 1995 (1967). Remarks on the mind body question in Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.
Wilson, E.O. Q by Churchland P S.
Wolf, F A 1989. Taking the quantum leap. New physics for neuroscientists. Harper Perennial pub.

I. Dinakar. Correlative Neurophilosophy and Related Articles.

Reproduced by permission of the author.

From the Treasure Trove of Neurology India

Cysticercosis of the brain

I. Dinakar

Neurology India, 1970 / reprinted 2018 · Department of Neurological Sciences, Christian Medical College Hospital, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

I. Dinakar, K. V. Mathai, Jacob Chandy

Introduction

Cysticercosis of the brain is caused by the presence of the larval form of Taenia solium in the parenchyma of the brain, the meninges, or in the ventriculosubarachnoid pathway.

According to Olive and Angulo-Rivero,[10] cysticerci were found by Rumler in 1588 in the dura of an epileptic patient. An account of meningeal racemose cysticercosis of the base of the brain was given by Virchow in 1860. In 1862, Griesinger drew attention to cysticercosis as a cause of convulsive disorder. The epoch making study of MacArthur[8] firmly established the role of cysticercosis in the causation of chronic cerebral seizures.

The earliest to report cerebral cysticercosis in India was Armstrong according to Singh et al.[12] Subsequently, Eliott and Ingram in 1911, Krishnaswami in 1912, Menon and Velliath,[9] and Gault and Balasubramaniam[5] among others reported cases of cerebral cysticercosis.

Material

This presentation is a study of 25 proved cases of cerebral cysticercosis treated in the department. The recorded history, physical signs, clinical course of the disease, and operative findings were analyzed. Histopathological confirmation of the intracranial lesions was obtained in 16 patients, of whom 5 were subjected to autopsy. In 9 other cases, the diagnosis was established on the basis of biopsy of subcutaneous nodules or by the presence of intestinal taeniasis associated with radiological changes such as ventricular filling defects in the pneumoencephalogram [Table 1].

Table 1: Diagnostic basis of cerebral cysticercosis

Diagnosis based on	No. of cases
Cysticerci in cerebral lesions	16
Cysticerci in subcutaneous nodules	7
Intestinal taeniasis plus radiological changes	2

Age

The youngest patient was aged 5 years and the oldest was 56 years. The average age of the patients was 25 years. In Goni’s series, a majority of patients were between 20 and 40 years of age. Among 132 cases reported by Stepien,[14] the age of the patients ranged from 7 to 63 years. About 72% of the cases were between 21 and 50 years. Table 2 shows age incidence in this present series.

Table 2: Age incidence of 25 cases of cerebral cysticercosis

Age (years)	Male	Female
0–10	1	1
11–20	5	4
21–30	4	2
31–40	3	2
41–50	1	1
51–60	0	1

Sex

There were 14 males and 11 females in the present series. Both sexes were equally affected according to Goni[6] and Lombardo and Mateos.[7] In Stepien’s[14] series, there were 59.8% females and 40.2% males. Among 65 cases of Arseni and Samitca,[1] 37 were males and 20 were females.

Dietary habits

Ten patients were nonvegetarian and two were vegetarian among the 12 cases where this information was recorded. There was no mention regarding pork consumption, except in two cases in whom it was negative. Though in the literature considerable stress is laid on pork consumption as an etiological factor, this has not been substantiated by this study. It is known that Taenia solium ova can be consumed through contaminated water and vegetables, and it is not necessary for the patient to be a pork eater. Evidence of tapeworm infestation was present in five cases in this series.

Duration of symptoms

The shortest duration of symptoms was 3 weeks and the longest was 11 years. The average duration was 1.9 years. The corresponding figures were 2 weeks and 16 years in Stepien’s[14] series. About 60% of his cases sought medical help within 1 year of onset of symptoms. Fourteen of 25 cases in this series (56%) reported for treatment within 1 year of onset of symptoms.

Symptoms and signs

Epilepsy, headache, and diminished vision were the most common symptoms. Vomiting and mental symptoms were reported by a few.

Epilepsy was the commonest symptom being present in 20 patients (80%). Seizures were generalized in 11 and focal in 5 cases. The exact nature of seizures was not known in four cases. In 15 of these patients, epilepsy was the first symptom. The longest duration of fits was 11 years and the shortest was 19 days. In 450 cases described by Dixon and Lipscomb,[4] epilepsy was present in 92% of cases, and it was the first symptom in 76% of cases. In Stepien’s[14] series, epilepsy was present in 36.5% of cases. In all, 51 of 65 cases of Arseni and Samitca[1] had epilepsy.

Headache was present in 18 cases (72%). In Stepien’s[14] series, headache occurred in 97.7% of cases; 30 of 31 cases of Lombardo and Mateos complained of headache and 52 of 65 cases of Arseni[1] had headache.

Diminished vision was complained of by 18 patients in the present series. Vomiting was the next in frequency (40%). Two patients had mental symptoms.

Papilledema was present in 13 patients, and in 3 there was optic atrophy. Papilledema occurred in 84% of Stephien’s[14] patients and in 25 of 31 cases of Lombardo and Mateos.[7]

Focal neurologic deficits such as motor weakness, sensory changes, and abnormalities in the reflexes were present in 15 cases.

Subcutaneous nodules were present in nine patients. In one patient, subcutaneous nodules developed after his discharge from hospital. In one patient, in whom cysticerci were excised from the right temporal lobe, subsequent autopsy showed diffuse multiple cysticerci in the brain. There were also numerous cutaneous nodules. Six of the cases with cutaneous nodules were in the group presenting mainly with seizures. Diagnosis was made after demonstration of cysticerci in these nodules.

Blood and cerebrospinal fluid

Blood eosinophil count of 10% or more was found in five cases. Eosinophilia has been reported by different kind of workers in a varying proportion of patients. Dixon and Hargreaves[3] found eosinophilia in about 10% of their 284 cases. Arseni and Samitca[1] found eosinophilia of over 6% in 13 of their 65 cases.

Cerebrospinal fluid studies were done in 21 cases. Biochemical abnormality was present in nine of these. In 12 cases, the spinal fluid was normal. In nine cases showing cerebrospinal fluid abnormality, the protein content ranged from 55 to 400 mg%. The range of glucose levels was 10 and 90 mg%. White cell count of more than 5/mm³ was found in six cases out of these nine. There were five additional cases showing raised cell count in the cerebrospinal fluid with protein and sugar values remaining within the normal limits. There was no eosinophilia in the cerebrospinal fluid in this series. Changes in cerebrospinal fluid consisted of lymphocytic pleocytosis which occurred in 18.9% of cases in Stepien’s[14] series. Eosinophilia in the spinal fluid is said to indicate the presence of cysticercus lesion in the nervous system. However, failure to find spinal fluid eosinophilia is not against the diagnosis of cerebral cysticercosis. According to MacArthur,[8] the cerebrospinal fluid may remain unaffected even with profound cerebral disturbance. Dixon and Hargreaves[3] agree with this view.

Classification

Stepien and Chorobski[13] in a study of 23 personal cases and 71 cases reported in the literature, grouped cases of cerebral cysticercosis into three categories. Group I comprised case with cysts often single, which caused symptoms similar to brain tumor. The focal symptoms varied depending on the area involved. Group II cases had cysts, which were usually numerous and produced diffuse swelling of the brain or multiple focal symptomatology. In the third group, the parasites caused chiefly hydrocephalus. Dixon and Lipscomb[4] stated that three distinct clinical patterns related to pathological factors at work emerged from their study of 450 cases. In Group I, the illness started soon after the probable date of infection, and the course was that of an acute febrile disorder during or soon after which signs of raised intracranial pressure developed. In Group II cases, signs of intracranial hypertension developed gradually during the course of the disease. The clinical picture was that of intracranial hypertension with fits. Patients in Group III developed hydrocephalus gradually with characteristic recurrent attacks of acute rise in intracranial pressure, when ventricles contained free lying cysts, and without such attacks when arachnoiditis was the feature. Goni,[6] in his Mexican series, found it convenient to group them into three categories: (a) parenchymatous type of two forms, acute and chronic, the acute resembling encephalitis with raised intracranial pressure, when diffuse, and without raised pressure when localized, (b) ventriculosubarachnoid type, which may be purely ventricular, purely subarachnoid, or ventriculosubarachnoid, and (c) mixed type. All the authors have mentioned that it is difficult to group the cases into watertight compartments, and many cases are on the borderline between the two groups. It is also noted that the classification of cerebral cysticercosis is not yet standardized. In this study, cerebral cysticercosis has been categorized into the following four groups:

Meningocephalitis

Cases in this group presented with relatively short history with rapid deterioration of consciousness and some signs of meningeal involvement. Most of these ran a fatal course. This group is comparable to Group II of Stepien and Chrobski[13] and Stepien.[14] In the latter series of 132 cases, this group constituted 25%. These cases also correspond to Goni’s diffuse, acute parenchymatous form. Eighteen of 65 cases of Arseni and Samitca[1] simulated meningoencephalitis. In the present series, there were seven cases in this group. The age of these patients ranged from 5 to 42 years. Only one was a child. All the remaining were between 18 and 42 years of age. There were four females and three males. The duration of symptoms was short, ranging from 3 weeks to 6 months. One patient had episodes of headache for 5 years which became severe and constant 4 months before admission. All patients had fever, altered level of consciousness, and papilledema. Focal neurologic deficits were present in five cases. The cerebrospinal fluid showed raised protein and lowered sugar in five cases, but the white cell count was elevated only in four of them, ranging from 11 to 500/mm³. Four of these cases were operated upon because of radiological localization of a possible mass. During operation, two of them had cysticerci in the fourth ventricle. Both expired in the postoperative period. Autopsy was done on one of them, and there was cerebral edema, with cysts in different parts of the brain. Of the other two operated patients, one had cysts in the left frontal region which were excised. She could not be followed subsequently. The other patient remained unconscious and died 2 months after craniotomy and excision of multiple cysts from the right temporal lobe. Autopsy showed multiple cysticerci scattered throughout the brain. Among the three unexplored cases, two patients died in the ward before a definite diagnosis was arrived at. Autopsy showed generalized cerebral cysticercosis in both cases, one of them having in addition cysts in the liver and a tapeworm in the intestines. One patient who presented with signs and symptoms of meningoencephalitis did not reveal any evidence of cysticerci during his stay in the hospital. He was treated with anticonvulsants and dehydration measures with which he improved. A few weeks after discharge from the hospital he developed cutaneous nodules and they were excised and were reported to be cysticerci.

Brain tumor syndrome

(nine patients): These cases showed signs and symptoms of raised intracranial pressure with or without seizures and usually exhibited focal neurologic deficits. Investigations revealed cysticerci, usually forming a mass lesion located in the cerebral hemispheres or cerebellum, or a single cyst occupying the fourth ventricle causing obstruction. This group corresponds to Stepien’s[14] Group I. About 42% of his cases belonged to this group. This also corresponds to Group II of Dixon and Lipscomb[4] and to chronic parenchymatous form of Goni.[6] Nine cases in our series represented this group. The age of the patients ranged from 9 to 56 years. Six were males and three were females. The duration of symptoms ranged from 1 month to 11 years. Seven of these patients had headache, eight had fits, eight had focal neurological deficits, and seven had papilledema with signs of raised intracranial pressure. The location of cysts as found during operation was cerebral hemispheres in six, cerebellum in two, and fourth ventricle in one.

Basal arachnoiditis

(one patient): There was one patient in this category who presented initially with chronic hydrocephalus and neurologic deficits. A third ventricular tumor was radiologically suspected. Exploration of the lateral and third ventricles was negative and a ventriculoatrial shunt was done. On a subsequent admission, her condition deteriorated and she expired. Autopsy revealed basal cysticercus arachnoiditis.

Convulsive disorder

(eight patients): Patients representing this group had mainly seizures. They did not exhibit signs of focal neurologic deficits or raised intracranial pressure. The diagnosis was confirmed by demonstration of cutaneous cysticerci in six cases and intestinal taeniasis in two.

Surgical treatment and operative findings

Verco was probably the first to remove a cysticercus from brain.[10] There were many subsequent attempts on removal of these cysts at operation, but many surgeons expressed themselves against surgical removal of cysticerci. Dandy[2] felt that surgical treatment was of no value. In 1949, Stepien and Chorobski[13] published the results of operation of 23 personal cases and 71 from the literature. They concluded that operative treatment was followed by good results in 50% of cases.

Fourteen patients were operated upon in this series. Multiple cysts forming mass lesions were excised from different regions of the cerebral hemispheres in eight cases. These were two cases in which multiple cysts were found in the cerebellum. A solitary cyst in the fourth ventricle was found in three cases. In one case, exploration through a right frontal craniotomy was negative, and a ventriculoatrial shunt was done. The patient subsequently expired and autopsy revealed hydrocephalus due to basal meningitis with cysticerci.

Results of surgery

Four of the 14 operated patients expired during the postoperative period in the hospital. Of these, three belonged to the meningoencephalitis group and one belonged to the basal arachnoiditis group. Of the other 10 operated cases, 9 belonged to Group II. There was no postoperative mortality in this group. One patient expired subsequently 9 years after operation. Five patients were followed up for periods ranging from 4 to 16 years. Three of them have shown improvement in terms of freedom from fits and ability to lead an independent life. Two patients have remained unchanged and they continued to have seizures though they are on anticonvulsants. No follow-up is available for the other three patients. The overall operative mortality is about 28%. It is significant that there is no operative mortality among the brain tumor syndrome group, who apparently have a localized mass of cysts or a single cyst, and who do well after surgical excision of the lesion. On the contrary, those who have a diffuse distribution of cysts and present as meningoencephalitis have a higher operative mortality (75%).

Pathology and pathogenesis

The gross and microscopic pathology of neurocysticercosis is fairly well established. The liv[…] and are generally neurologically silent. After the death of the larva, the cyst is surround[ed …] polymorphs, lymphocytes, macrophages, epithelioid cells, and foreign body giant cells. T[…] progresses to the formation of scars. It is the formation of multiple scars in the brain and m[…]

Fibrosis and inflammatory reaction were minimal in silent cases of cysticercosis cerebri. Sho[wramha …] contrast to silent cases, tissue reaction was intense in symptomatic cases. Fibrosis and infla[mmation …] authors are directly proportional to the degree of degeneration of cysts. Dixon and Lipsco[mb …] described below:

Thin-walled cysts with living larvae
Cysts with degenerated larvae and caseous material with surrounding inflamma[tion]
Calcareous nodules of hardly recognizable structure.

A diffuse distribution of cysts in many areas of the brain was found in four cases at autopsy. Cysticerci forming a mass lesion in the cerebral hemisphere was found in seven cases, and in the cerebellum alone in two cases. There were two cases with solitary cysts in the fourth ventricle. There was one case of basal cysticercus with arachnoiditis. The histopathology has been reviewed in 15 cases, but the larval parts could be seen only in seven cases. Inflammatory changes in the cyst wall consisted of lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophilic cells, epithelioid cells, and foreign body giant cells. Fibrosis was present in all cases. Microscopic calcification was seen only in one case.

Summary and conclusion

In all, 25 cases of neurocysticercosis have been reviewed with regard to clinical features, biochemical abnormalities in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid, and operative and autopsy findings. Patients with cerebral cysticercosis present in one of the four following forms: (1) meningoencephalitis, (2) brain tumor syndrome, (3) basal arachnoiditis, and (4) convulsive disorder. Eosinophilia in blood and cerebrospinal fluid has not been a prominent feature in this series.

Prognosis in the meningoencephalitis group is poor. Patients presenting as brain tumor have a good prognosis if the space occupying lesion formed by cysticerci is excised.

Financial support and sponsorship

Nil.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

References

Arseni C, Samitca DC. Cysticercosis of the brain. Brit Med J 1957;2:494.
Dandy WE. Surgery of the Brain (Lewis Practice of Surgery Vol. XII). Hagerstown, MD: W.F. Prior Company; p. 377-82.
Dixon HBF, Hargreaves WH. Cysticercosis (Taenia solium). A further ten years clinical study covering 284 cases. Quart J Med 1944;13:107.
Dixon HBF, Lipscomb FM. Cysticercosis, an analysis and follow-up of 450 cases. Medical Research Council. Special Report Series No. 299; 1961.
Gault EW, Balasubramaniyan M. A case of cerebral cysticercosis. J Path Bact 1948;60:505.
Goni PB. Panel Discussion, Cysticercosis of the nervous system: III. Clinical findings and treatment. J Neurosurg 1962;19:641.
Lombardo L, Mateos JH. Cerebral cysticercosis in Mexico. Neurology (Minneap) 1961;11:824.
MacArthur WP. Cysticercosis as seen in the British Army, with special reference to production of epilepsy. Trans Roy Soc Trop Med Hyg 1934;27:343.
Menon TB, Velliath GD. Tissue reactions to cysticercus cellulosae in man. Trans Roy Soc Trop Med Hyg 1940;33:537.
Clive JI, Angulo-Rivero P. Panel Discussion. Cysticercosis of the nervous system: I. Introduction and general aspects. J Neurosurg 1962;19:632.
Showramha A, Reddy DB. Silent cysticercosis of the brain (an analysis of five cases with special reference to histopathology). Indian J Path Bact 1963;6:142.
Singh H, Singh A, Sham R. Cerebral cysticercosis. J Indian Med Assoc 1963;41:196.
Stepien L, Chorobski J. Cysticercosis cerebri and its operative treatment. Arch Neurol Psychiatr 1949;61:499.
Stepien L. Cerebral cysticercosis in Poland. Clinical symptoms and operative results in 132 cases. J Neurosurg 1962;19:505.

Dinakar I, Mathai KV, Chandy J. Cysticercosis of the brain. Neurol India 1970;24:282-284. Reprinted, Neurology India 2018;66(4):924-927.

Neurology India is an open access journal; articles are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License. The guest commentary that accompanied the 2018 reprint is not reproduced here.

Curriculum Vitae

Prof. I. Dinakar

M.B., M.S., M.Ch. (Neuro), F.I.C.S.

Retired Professor of Neurosurgery · Former Director & Vice-Chancellor, Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences · Punjagutta, Hyderabad, TS, India

Academic career

M.B.B.S. (Andhra University) 1959.
M.S. (General Surgery) (Andhra University) 1964.
M.Ch. (Neurosurgery) (Madras) 1968.
F.I.C.S. (Fellow, International College of Surgeons) 1980.

Professional career

Tutor in Forensic Medicine, Andhra Medical College, Visakhapatnam — 04.08.1961 to 15.05.1962
Postgraduate Trainee in General Surgery, Andhra Medical College, Visakhapatnam — 16.05.1962 to 16.07.1964
Assistant Professor, P.F. Neurosurgery, Andhra Medical College, Visakhapatnam — 17.07.1964 to 21.11.1971
Professor of Neurosurgery, Kurnool Medical College, Kurnool — Appointed by the Government of Andhra Pradesh on his return from the United Kingdom. For nearly a decade he carried neurosurgery, neurology and radiology services there with scarce facilities and no qualified assistance.
Professor of Neurosurgery & Neurosurgeon, Andhra Medical College, Visakhapatnam — 06.06.1983 to 30.09.1986
Professor & Head of Neurosurgery, Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad — From 01.10.1986 — the Institute's first Professor and Head of the department
Dean, Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences — August 1988 to October 1991

Honours

Honorary Fellow in Surgical Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Edinburgh, 1972.
Honoured by the Jaycees as the outstanding Young Person for devotion to duty and service to the Community, 1978.
Honorary Consultant in Neurosurgery to the Armed Forces (Ex.).

Fellowships and memberships

Mission Council Member, Society for Biomedical Technology (SBMIT), 1992–1996.
Member, Armed Forces Medical Research Committee, as Eminent Medical Scientist, 1995 to 1998.
Member, Neurological Society of India.
Member, Expert Committee, Technology Information Forecasting & Assessment Council (TIFAC), 1993–1996.
Project Director of Project Tulasi of SBMT.
Secretary, Neurotrauma Committee, Neurological Society of India, 1992–94.

Awards and orations

Dr. Swaminadhan Prize in Anatomy — 1956
Col. Anderson Gold Medal in Anatomy — 1957
Sir Vikram Deo Gold Medal in Medicine — 1959
Silver Jubilee Gold Medal in S.P.M. — 1959
Dr. Kutumbaiah Prize in Clinical Medicine — 1959
Col. Anderson Gold Medal for the Most Distinguished graduate of the year — the Blue Ribbon of the College — 1960
Smith and Nephew fellowship, U.K. — 1972
I.M.A. oration, Bellary, Karnataka — 1979
Dr. Shurveer Singh Visiting lecture, Udaypur — 1990
Capt. Venkaiah Memorial oration — 1993
Dr. Vyagresharudu Memorial oration — 1993
Dr. Ikuhissa Hagiwara ICP Endowment Oration Gold Medal — 1995
Keynote address, workshop on Image processing for Medical Application, organised by NRS and NIMA — Oct 1995
Oration on spinal cord injuries, Manipal Academy, Manipal — 18.02.1996
Guest Lecture: Reducing Risk of radiation damage — Role of Radio modifiers; Sitamahalakshmi Memorial Lecture, AP Academy of Sciences, Hyderabad — 28.02.1996
Dr. Muralidhar Oration, APNSA — 2001
Mind–Matter–Movement: presidential oration, APNSA — July 2006
The neurobiology of consciousness — 12.11.2006
Music and the brain, Seattle, USA — Aug 2006
The symphony of the neuron — Neurobiology of Music — 18 June 2008
The clinical (Neurological) Heritage of Sherlock Holmes — Souvenir of Annual Conference of APNS, Hyderabad — Aug 2008
The uniqueness of the human being — lecture to faculty of DDH&RC — Jan 2009
Neuronal Choriography — Neurobiology of dance — March 2013
The Ballet of the Neuron: Performer to perceiver — role of mirror neuron system — Nov 2013
Illusion and Reality: Correlative Neurophilosophy — Neurosurgery endowment oration, SVIMS (Citation and gold medal) — 07.03.2015
Evolution of Neurosciences in the Telugu states (embryology of Neuro departments), Doctors' Day honoured guest, Hi 9, Hyderabad — 28.08.2015 / 01.07.2015
Honoured by old students of AMC, Vizag at their Global meeting, for his lifetime contributions in Neuro Sciences — Dec 2015
Lifetime achievement award — Neurological Society of India — Dec 2016
Lifetime achievement award of A.P. Neuroscientists — July 2023
Lecture: Ancora Imparo, at APNSA Conference — 2023
Neuroscience Oration, AMC Centenary — THE QUANTUM MIND — 29.10.2023
R. N. Bhargava memorial oration: The wisdom of the sapiens, IMA Hyderabad — 12.11.2023
The Metaphysics of consciousness — biennial conference of the Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgeons' Society, Gurugram — 10.08.2024
Allusion to an Illusion — HSS meeting — 30.09.2024
Lifetime Achievement award at the 34th Neurotrauma Conference — 08.08.2026

Scientific communications

Publications: 310 papers in national and international journals.

Presentations: about 135 in conferences, seminars, scientific meetings and orations.

Research projects: around 30 on neurological topics.

Special interests

Neurophilosophy, Music (Classical), Evolutionary Biology.

Research

Research Projects Undertaken

Prof. I. Dinakar

As numbered in the curriculum vitae

Clinico biochemical studies in Neuro-tuberculosis (SMR scheme).
Clinico biochemical studies in Acute Head Injury (SMR scheme).
Soluble contrast medium (Contay-280) in Neuro-roentgenology.
Clinical trial of cyclospasmol (Cyclandelate) Project-10 (Martin & Harris).
Studies in Biogenic amines in sleep and wakeful state in the ventricular CSF of man (ICMR scheme).
Experimental production of Tuberculoma of Brain (USC Scheme).
Intrinsic brain stem lesions in fatal cases of Head Injury.
Lumbar disc prolapse: Clinical, Anatomical, Radiological, Histopathological aspects.
Epidemiologic survey of Neurotuberculosis (ICMR).
Biogenic amines in CSF in Parkinson patients before and after treatment with L. Dopa (ICMR).
Biochemical markers in Neurotuberculosis — Role of A60 Antibodies in neurotuberculosis.
Extended Glasgow Coma Scale in the management of moderate head injuries — Study of statistical correlation with outcome.
Study of 100 moderate to severe Head Injured Patients. The Initial CT Scan features and ultimate outcome.
Serial Somatosensory Evoked Potentials and Neurological grades as predictors of outcome in acute dorsolumbar spinal cord injury. — Comparative study of CT Scan and RA scan in postop. Follow-up of Brain Abscess.
Intraoperative evoked potentials (BAER) in Posterior Fossa lesion.
Free radicals in Intrinsic Cerebral Injury — Prognostic value.
Role of functional posterior rhizotomy and drezotomy in relief of painful spasticity.
Evaluation of Lumbosacral Selective Rhizotomy in spastic states other than those due to cerebral palsy.
Evaluation of Nimodipine on the clinical outcome of conservative management of moderate and severe head injuries.
Free radicals in acute spinal cord trauma.
Comparative study of CT Scan and RA scan in postop. Follow-up of Brain Abscess.
Intraoperative evoked potentials (BAER) in Posterior Fossa lesion.
Free radicals in Intrinsic Cerebral Injury — Prognostic value.
Role of functional posterior rhizotomy and drezotomy in relief of painful spasticity.
Evaluation of Lumbosacral Selective Rhizotomy in spastic states other than those due to cerebral palsy.
Evaluation of Nimodipine on the clinical outcome of conservative management of moderate and severe head injuries.
Free radicals in acute spinal cord trauma.
Intraoperative evoked potentials (BAER) in Posterior Fossa lesion.
Free radicals in Intrinsic Cerebral Injury — Prognostic value.
Role of functional posterior rhizotomy and drezotomy in relief of painful spasticity.
Evaluation of Lumbosacral Selective Rhizotomy in spastic states other than those due to cerebral palsy.
Evaluation of Nimodipine on the clinical outcome of conservative management of moderate and severe head injuries.
Free radicals in acute spinal cord trauma.

Editorial review

Papers sent for publication

Prof. I. Dinakar

Five manuscripts, as listed on the contents sheet

Nonlocality of consciousness
J. Nonlocality
Dialectics in ancient Indian texts
Mens Sana Monographs
Consciousness and anaesthesia
Academia Medicine and Health — with S. N. Rao
Some basic concepts of structural function of the cerebro-vascular system
Neurovascon, 02–04.10.2026
Information and the mind of human kind
J.C.S.R.

Publications

Publications — List

Prof. I. Dinakar

310 numbered papers, 1969 to 2025

Prof. I. Dinakar

A life in neurosurgery

Selected writings post retirement

Writings

The volume — contents

Appointments

Honours & memberships

Awards & orations

Research projects

Papers sent for publication

Publications